SEMINAR:

ADVERSE EFFECTS OF CANNABIS

(part 1)
Cannabis The Drug
Patterns Of Cannabis Use
Acute Effects Of Cannabis
Effects Of Chronic Cannabis Use

(Part 2)
References
Further Reading

REFERENCES

1 Hall W, Johnston L, Donnelly N. The epidemiology of cannabis use and its
consequences. In: Kalant H, Corrigal W, Hall W, Smart R, eds. The health
effects of cannabis. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation, 1998.

2 Hall W, Solowij N, Lemon J. The health and psychological consequences of
cannabis use. National Drug Strategy Monograph Series no 25. Canberra:
Australian Government Publishing Service, 1994.

3 Adams IB, Martin BR. Cannabis: pharmacology and toxicology in animals and
humans. Addiction 1996; 91: 1585-614.

4 Bachman JG, Wadsworth KN, O'Mally PM, et al. Smoking, drinking and drug
use in young adulthood. Malwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
1997.

5 Kandel DB, Davies M. Progression to regular marijuana involvement:
phenomenology and risk factors for near daily use. In: Glantz M, Pickens R,
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Association, 1992.

6 Chait LD, Pierri J. Effects of smoked marijuana on human performance: a
critical review. In: Murphy A, Bartke J, eds. Marijuana/cannabinoids:
neurobiology and neurophysiology. Boca Raton: CRC, 1992.

7 Robbe HWJ. Influence of marijuana on driving. Maastricht, University of
Limberg: Institute for Human Psychopharmacology, 1994.

8 Smiley A. Marijuana: on road and driving simulator studies. In: Kalant H,
Corrigal W, Hall W, Smart R, eds. The health effects of cannabis. Toronto:
Addiction Research Foundation, 1998.

9 Chesher G. Cannabis and road safety: an outline of research studies to
examine the effects of cannabis on driving skills and actual driving
performance. In: Road Safety Committee, Parliament of Victoria. The effects
of drugs (other than alcohol) on road safety. Melbourne: Road Safety
Committee, Parliament of Victoria, 1995: 67-96.

10 Leuchtenberger C. Effects of marihuana (cannabis) smoke on cellular
biochemistry of in vitro test systems. In: Fehr KO, Kalant H, eds. Cannabis
and health hazards. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation, 1983.

11 Munson AE, Fehr KO. Immunological effects of cannabis. In: Fehr KO,
Kalant H, eds. Cannabis and health hazards. Toronto: Addiction Research
Foundation, 1983.

12 Hollister LE. Marijuana and immunity. J Psychoactive Drugs 1992; 24: 159-64.

13 Coates RA, Farewell VT, Raboud J, et al. Cofactors of progression to
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in a cohort of male sexual contacts of
men with human immunodeficiency virus disease. Am J Epidemiol 1990; 132:
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14 Kaslow RA, Blackwelder WC, Ostrow DG, et al. No evidence for a role of
alcohol or other psychoactive drugs in accelerating immunodeficiency in
HIV-1-positive individuals: a report from the Multicentre AIDS Cohort
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15 Bloom JW, Kaltenborn WT, Paoletti P, et al. Respiratory effects of
non-tobacco cigarettes. BMJ 1987; 295: 1516-18.

16 Tashkin DP, Fligiel S, Wu TC, et al. Effects of habitual use of
marijuana and/or cocaine on the lung. In: Chiang CN, Hawks RL, eds.
Research findings on smoking of abused substances. National Institute on
Drug Abuse Research Monograph 99. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute
on Drug Abuse, 1990.

17 Fligiel SEG, Roth MD, Kleerup EC, et al. Tracheobronchial histopathology
in habitual smokers of cocaine, marijuana and/or tobacco. Chest 1997; 112:
319-26.

18 Tashkin DP, Simmons MS, Sherrill DL, Coulson AH. Heavy habitual
marijuana smoking does not cause an accelerated decline in FEV1 with age.
Am J Respir Critical Care Med 1997; 155: 141-48.

19 Sherrill DL, Krzyzanowski JW, Bloom JW, Lebowitz MD. Respiratory effects
of non-tobacco cigarettes: a longitudinal study in general population. Int
J Epidemiol 1991; 20: 132-37.

20 Tashkin DP. Is frequent marijuana smoking harmful to health? Western J
Med 1993; 158: 635-37.

21 Caplan GA, Brigham BA. Marijuana smoking and carcinoma of the tongue. Is
there an association? Cancer 1989; 66: 1005-06.

22 Sridar KS, Raub WA, Weatherby NL, et al. Possible role of marijuana
smoking as a carcinogen in the development of lung cancer at an early age.
J Psychoactive Drugs 1994; 26: 285-88.

23 Bloch E. Effects of marijuana and cannabinoids on reproduction,
endocrine function, development and chromosomes. In: Fehr KO, Kalant H,
eds. Cannabis and health hazards. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation,
1983.

24 Abel EL. Effects of prenatal exposure to cannabinoids. In: Pinkert TM,
ed. Current research on the consequences of maternal drug abuse. NIDA
Research Monograph no 59. Washington: Department of Health and Human
Services, 1985.

25 Richardson GA, Day NL, McGauhey PJ. The impact of prenatal marijuana and
cocaine use on the infant and child. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1993; 36: 302-18.
26 Fried PA. Prenatal exposure to tobacco and marijuana: effects during
pregnancy, infancy and early childhood. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1993; 36:
319-36.

27 Zuckerman B, Frank D, Hingson R, et al. Effects of maternal marijuana
and cocaine use on fetal growth. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 762-68.

28 Shiono PH, Klebanoff MA, Nugent RP, et al. The impact of cocaine and
marijuana use on low birth weight and preterm birth: a multicenter study.
Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 172: 19-27.

29 Fried PA. Behavioural outcomes in preschool-aged children exposed
prenatally to marijuana: a review and speculative interpretation. In:
Wetherington CL, Smeriglio CL, Finnegan L, eds. Behavioural studies of drug
exposed offspring: methodological issues in human and animal research. NIDA
Research Monograph 164. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1996.
30 Robison LI, Buckley JD, Daigle AE, et al. Maternal drug use and the risk
of childhood nonlympholastic leukemia among offspring: an epidemiologic
investigation implicating marijuana. Cancer 1989; 63: 1904-11.

31 Grufferman S, Schwartz AG, Ruymann FB, Mauer HM. Parent's use of cocaine
and marijuana and increased risk of rhabdomyosarcoma in their children.
Cancer, Causes & Control 1993; 4: 217-24.

32 Kuitjen RR, Bunin GR, Nass CC, Meadows AT. Parental occupation and
childhood astrocytoma. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 782-86.

33 Newcombe T, Bentler P. Consequences of adolescent drug use: impact on
the lives of young adults. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications,
1988.

34 Fergusson D, Horwood J. Early onset cannabis use and psychosocial
adjustment in young adults. Addiction 1997; 92: 279-96.

35 Yamaguchi K, Kandel DB. Patterns of drug use from adolescence to
adulthood: II--sequences of progression. Am J Public Health 1984; 74:
668-72.

36 Compton DR, Dewey WL, Martin BR. Cannabis dependence and tolerance
production. Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse 1990; 9: 128-47.

37 Wickelgren I. Marijuana: harder than thought? Science 1997; 276:
1967-68. 38 Weisbeck GA, Schuckit MA, Kalmijn JA, et al. An evaluation of
the history of marijuana withdrawal syndrome in a large population.
Addiction 1996; 91: 1469-78.

39 Stephens RS, Roffman RA, Simpson EE. Adult marijuana users seeking
treatment. J Consult Clin Psychol 1993; 61: 1110-04.

40 Anthony JC, Warner LA, Kessler RC. Comparative epidemiology of
dependence on tobacco, alcohol, controlled substances and inhabitants:
basic findings from the National Comorbidity Study. Clin Exp
Psychopharmacol 1994; 2: 244-68.

41 Solowij N. Cannabis and cognitive functioning. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1998.

42 Fletcher JM, Page JB, Francis DJ, et al. Cognitive correlates of
long-term cannabis use in Costa Rican men. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996; 53:
1051-57.

43 Pope HG, Yurgelun-Todd D. The residual congitive effects of heavy
marijuana use. JAMA 1996; 275: 521-27.

44 Chopra GS, Smith JW. Psychotic reactions following cannabis use in East
Indians. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974; 30: 24-27.

45 Andreasson S, Allebeck P, Engstrom A, Rydberg U. Cannabis and
schizophrenia: a longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Lancet 1987; ii:
1483-86.

46 Turner WM, Tsuang MT. Impact of substance abuse on the course and
outcome of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bull 1990; 16: 87-95.

47 Linszen DH, Dingemans PM, Lenior ME. Cannabis abuse and the course and
outcome of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bull 1990; 16: 87-372.

48 Der G, Gupta S, Murray RM. Is schizophrenia disappearing? Lancet 1990;
335: 513-16.

49 Andreasson S, Allebeck P. Cannabis and mortality among young men: a
longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Scand J Social Med 1990; 18:
9-15. 50 Sidney S, Beck JE, Tekawa IE, et al. Marijuana use and mortality.
Am J Public Health 1997; 87: 585-90.

FURTHER READING

General

Hall W, Solowij N, Lemon J. The health and psychological consequences of
cannabis use. National Drug Strategy Monograph Series no 25. Canberra:
Australian Government Publishing Service, 1994.

Hollister LE. Health aspects of cannabis. Pharmacol Rev 1986; 38: 1-20.

Kalant H, Corrigal W, Hall W, Smart R, eds. The health effects of cannabis.
Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation, 1998.

Programme on Substance Abuse, WHO. Cannabis: a health perspective and
research agenda. Geneva: Division of Mental Health and Prevention of
Substance Abuse, WHO, 1997.

Pharmacology

Adams IB, Martin BR. Cannabis: pharmacology and toxicology in animals and
humans. Addiction 1996; 91: 1585-614.

Compton DR, Harris LS, Lichtman AH, Martin BR. Marihuana. In: Schuster CR,
Kuher MJ, eds. Pharmacological aspects of drug dependence. Berlin: Springer
Verlag, 1993,

Pertwee RG. Pharmacological, physiological and clinical implications of the
discovery of cannabinoid receptors: an overview. In: Pertwee RG, ed.
Cannabinoid receptors. London: Harcourt Brace, 1995.

Patterns of cannabis use

Bachman JG, Wadsworth KN, O'Malley PM, et al. Smoking, drinking and drug
use in young adulthood: Malwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
1997.

Hall W, Johnston L, Donnelly N. The epidemiology of cannabis use and its
consequences. In: Kalant H, Corrigal W, Hall W, Smart R. The health effects
of cannabis. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation, 1998.

Driving

Chesher G. Cannabis and road safety: an outline of research studies to
examine the effects of cannabis on driving skills and actual driving
performance. In: Road Safety Committee, Parliament of Victoria. The effects
of drugs (other than alcohol) on road safety. Melbourne: Road Safety
Committee, Parliament of Victoria, 1995: 67-96.

Robbe HWJ. Influence of marijuana on driving. Maastricht, Institute for
Human Psychopharmacology, University of Limberg, 1994.

Smiley A. Marijuana: on road and driving simulator studies. In: Kalant H,
Corrigal W, Hall W, Smart R. The health effects of cannabis. Toronto:
Addiction Research Foundation, 1998.

Terhune KW. Problems and methods in studying drug crash effects. Alcohol
Drugs Driving 1986; 2: 1-13.

Immune system

Hollister LE. Marijuana and immunity. J Psychoactive Drugs 1992; 24:
159-64. Klein TW. Cannabis and immunity. In: Kalant H, Corrigal W, Hall W,
Smart R. The health effects of cannabis. Toronto: Addiction Research
Foundation, 1998.

Respiratory effects

Tashkin D. Effects of cannabis on the respiratory system. In: Kalant H,
Corrigal W, Hall W, Smart R. The health effects of cannabis. Toronto:
Addiction Research Foundation, 1998.

Taylor FM. Marijuana as a potential respiratory tract carcinogen: a
retrospective analysis of a community hospital population. South Med J
1988; 81: 1213-16.

Wu T, Tashkin DP, Djahed B, Rose JE. Pulmonary hazards of smoking marijuana
as compared with tobacco. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 347-51.

Reproductive effects

Fried PA. Prenatal exposure to tobacco and marijuana: effects during
pregnancy, infancy and early childhood. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1993; 36:
319-36.

Fried PA. The Ottawa Prenatal Prospective Study (OPPS): methodological
issues and findings-its easy to throw the baby out with the bath water.
Life Sci 1995; 56: 2159-68.

Richardson GA, Day NL, McGauhey PH. The impact of prenatal marijuana and
cocaine use on the infant and child. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1993; 36: 302-18.
Adolescent use

Chen K, Kandel DB. The natural history of drug use from adolescence to the
mid-thirties in a general population sample. Am J Public Health 1995; 85:
41-47.

Hall W, Johnston L, Donnelly N. The epidemiology of cannabis use and its
consequences. In: Kalant H, Corrigal W, Hall W, Smart R. The health effects
of cannabis. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation, 1998.

Kandel DB. Issues of sequencing of adolescent drug use and other problem
behaviors. Drugs Soc 1988; 3: 55-76.

Osgood DW, Johnston LD, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG. The generality of deviance
in late adolescence and early adulthood. Am Social Rev 1988; 53: 81-93.

Dependence

Channabasavanna S, Paes M, Hall W. Psychiatric and behavioural effects of
cannabis. In: Kalant H, Corrigal W, Hall W, Smart R. The health effects of
cannabis. Toronto: Addiction Reseach Foundation, 1998.

Jones RT, Benowitz N, Herning RI. The clinical relevance of cannabis
tolerance and dependence. J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 21: 143S-152S.

Stephens RS, Roffman RA. Adult marijuana dependence. In: Baer JS, Marlatt
GA, MacMahon RJ, eds. Addictive behaviors across the lifespan: prevention,
treatment and policy issues. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications,
1993.

Cognitive effects

Pope HG, Gruber AJ, Yurgelun-Todd D. The residual neuropsychological
effects of cannabis: the current status of research. Drug Alcohol Depend
1995; 38: 25-34.

Solowij N. Cannabis and cognitive functioning. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1998.

Psychosis

Allebeck P. Cannabis and schizophrenia: is there a causal association? In:
Nahas GG, Latour C, eds. Physiopathology of illicit drugs: cannabis,
cocaine, opiates. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991.

Channabasavanna S, Paes M, Hall W. Psychiatric and behavioural effects of
cannabis. In: Kalant H, Corrigal W, Hall W, Smart R. The health effects of
cannabis. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation, 1998.

Thomas H. Psychiatric symptoms in cannabis users. Br J Psychiatry 1993;
163: 141-49.

Tien AY, Anthony JC. Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as
risk factors for psychotic experiences. J Nerv Mental Disorder 1990; 178:
473-80.

Thornicroft G. Cannabis and psychosis: is there epidemiological evidence
for an association? Br J Psychiatry 1990; 157: 25-33.

Therapeutic effects

British Medical Association. Therapeutic uses of cannabis. Amsterdam:
Harwood Academic, 1997.

Hartel C. Therapeutic uses of cannabis. In: Kalant H, Corrigal W, Hall W,
Smart R. The health effects of cannabis. Toronto: Addiction Research
Foundaton, 1998.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Report on the possible medical uses of
marijuana. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health, 1997.